Sources for Foreign Policy Essay Topics

Sources for Foreign Policy Essay TopicsForeign policy essay topics are very important to help students learn about this topic in school. When preparing a foreign policy essay, there are several options that students can use to help them with their writing. Here are four options that can be used to help students choose the topic for their essays.Students can choose topics that will help them improve upon their skills as writers in this area. A lot of students are known to do this, which is why they can have so much fun with it. One way that students can research topics for foreign policy essays is to go to various academic resources that can provide information on the topic.Another way is to visit the library and look at books that can help them with writing a more specific foreign policy topic. For example, they can look at books that can be used for education about the topic. They can also look at books that are written specifically for teaching a student about a specific foreign po licy topic.Students can also choose to write about a foreign policy topic based on events that have happened recently. For example, they can look at the recent turmoil in the Middle East and write about what has been going on in the country that is not part of the Middle East. This can also help students with their own research and personal opinions about the topic that they are writing about.Finally, students can take a look at the main topic of the essay. This can be quite useful when they need to use one single topic throughout the entire document. This is because it allows them to make the topics connect to each other by giving a general idea of what the subject is about.Students can also research specific events related to this topic in other parts of the world. For example, they can look up issues in China during the time of the Tiananmen Square protests and how that effected the country's government. By looking at some of the events that have happened, the students can prepar e a variety of different topics that they can use to write about in their foreign policy essay.There are many different ways that students can research foreign policy essay topics. Many times, the students will choose to use resources that relate to the topic that they are researching. Other times, students will use many different resources that they may find in a book or through other educational resources.Students will find that they can learn a lot about the subject through reading about foreign policy essay topics. When they are writing an essay, they should ensure that they are using multiple sources to help them with their research. This will help them with their academic writing skills and give them an opportunity to learn about foreign policy at the same time.

Negotiation Strategy Analysis - 929 Words

Negotiation Strategy Article Analysis Negotiations are handled differently by everyone. Some Negotiators are more passive and others extremely direct. Some love the bargaining process and begin the offer extremely low or high for the purpose of playing the negotiating game with their opponent. Others just prefer to have their best cards on the table with a take it or leave it attitude. Negotiators should learn when and how to use different negotiating styles. After all, negotiations play a huge role in business today. Two main negotiating strategies exist; non engagement and Active engagement. Both strategies will be discussed thoroughly to assist in identifying how different strategies may be used in business. â€Å"The California State†¦show more content†¦In this situation one side will get all. The cases mentioned differ as far as the strategy used. For the University of California faculty, the style more accurately reflects integrative style of negotiating. Each side is winning in some respect. They are aware of each other’s ultimate goals and are able to accommodate each other. In the end, the faculty avoid further dispute which is consistent with a non-engagement strategy. On the other hand, in the case concerning the da and tobacco company neither party wants to give in to each other. The FDA is determined to combat the issues resulting from tobacco products; while the tobacco companies are determined to maintain their labels as is. Circumstances surrounding every negotiation will determine which strategy is best to use. However, to become fully competent in making the decision on which strategy to use, one must understand how each strategy applies in real world sit uations. The two cases mentioned are excellent demonstrations on their usage. References Hoag, C. (2012, September 5). Cal State faculty approve 4-year contract. The Times-Standard. Retrieved from http://www.times-standard.com/localnews/ci_21470909/cal-state-faculty-approve-4-year-contract Lewicki, Barry, and Saunders, (2006). Negotiation 5th ed. Retrieved fromShow MoreRelatedNegotiation Strategy Analysis1141 Words   |  5 PagesNegotiation Strategy Analysis MGT445 September 6, 2010 Jeni Mixon Negotiation Strategy Analysis In many interactions throughout life, there comes the need to negotiate. Negotiation comes in many forms and fashions. Often when there is an issue, when there is a purchase, when a person has a need, when we have a want and many other instances can require the use of negotiation to achieve the desired outcome. In the world of business, negotiations are a staple of every interaction. DependingRead MoreNegotiation Strategy Article Analysis1105 Words   |  5 PagesNegotiation Strategy Article Analysis Leisha Clark MGT/445 October 13, 2010 Dr. Michael Taku Negotiation Strategy Article Analysis Using the Internet the author of this paper will find two articles that describe a negotiation situation that employs different negotiation strategies. The negotiation processes used in the selected articles will be described. The two strategies will be compared and contrasted and how they may apply in the work setting. Negotiation Articles Read MoreNegotiation Strategy Article Analysis Paper1062 Words   |  5 PagesNegotiation Strategy Article Analysis Paper Andres Zangara MGT/445 University of Phoenix Every negotiation starts with a process followed by a strategy because without either, then it would be just a disagreement with any kind of resolution to the issue. Making sure that you get what you set out for is important but does not necessarily mean that the other person has to lose in the negotiation so making sure to go through the process and then coming up with a strategy ensures thatRead MoreNegotiation Article Analysis841 Words   |  4 PagesNegotiation Process Article Analysis Organizational Negotiations MGT445 Negotiation Process Article Analysis The several negotiation strategies include collaboration, accommodation, competition, and avoidance (Lewicki, Saunders, amp; Barry, 2006). Depending on the situation, one strategy may be more effective than another strategy. Two such instances in which different negotiation strategies were applied are Negotiating New Vehicle Purchases (Craver, 2005) and Town Settles Mall Suit (The DailyRead MoreThe Southern Express Company Exercise1658 Words   |  7 Pagesengaging. Every part of this exercise reflected nuances of various negotiation strategies. Involved negotiation parties implemented distinct negotiation tactics from positional bargaining to cooperative effort to reach the deal. The union team experienced the pressure of positional bargaining and effectively implemented lock-in strategy in the response of it. Most interestingly, this exercise illustrated the challenges of negotiation within the group, on the other hand, it has reflected the challengesRead More The Roles of Neg otiation in Construction Essay1194 Words   |  5 PagesThe Roles of Negotiation in Construction Negotiation is a form of the decision-making process where two or more parties jointly search a space of possible solutions with the goal of reaching a consensus. In the construction industry, collaboration is an essential key for the success of projects. Since different participants from different organizations try to work together in projects, competitive stresses exist in their relationships and as a result, disputes orRead MoreThe Process Of Negotiation Process Essay1218 Words   |  5 PagesThe process of negotiation is very simple.Negotiation follows a four step path including: †¢ Preparation †¢ Information Exchange †¢ Bargaining †¢ Commitment It is a kind of universal change that takes place over four stages of steps and for better and best results, both partners must be very well versed with this change. The initial step that starts negotiation is preparation where you prepare yourself for negotiation considering the issues and goals that you want to attain at the end of the negotiationRead MoreCase Study962 Words   |  4 PagesNegotiation Strategies Articles Analysis University of Phoenix MGT/445 April , 2011 the Electronic Reserve Readings link for the course, the Internet, or other resources to find at least two articles that describe a negotiation situation that employs different negotiation strategies. Describe the negotiation processes used in your selected articles. Compare and contrast those two strategies and how they might apply in your work setting. NegotiationRead MoreGlobal Business Cultural Analysis Of Japan Essay1627 Words   |  7 Pages Global Business Cultural Analysis: Japan James Hendricks Liberty University  Global Business Cultural Analysis: Japan Technological advancement has made globalization an inevitable factor that businesses of the future will need to consider in order to be successful. Increasingly, companies that have been solely domestic are branching out internationally for a wide variety of reasons, but in the end, it’s all about making profits from previously inaccessible market segments. Read MoreWyoff Task 8959 Words   |  4 PagesTask 8- Wyoff and China -LuQuan: Negotiating a Joint Venture (A) Apply the Analysis process described in â€Å"Negotiation Analysis: An Introduction†, by Michel Wheeler to this case. Namely under separate headings (or in tabular form), address: 1. What were the parties BATNAs? Caxtalene Wyoff: * 60% and full management control and full license cost for technology. * Right to adjust price. * Profits paid immediately. CLQ: * 50% – 50% with lower license cost for technology.

“Dwarf Santan (Ixora Coccinea) as a Phytoremediation Agent...

National Capital Region Division of City Schools Batasan Hills National High School IBP Road Batasan Hills Q.C. Engineering and Science Education Program â€Å"Dwarf santan (Ixora coccinea) as a Phytoremediation Agent in Lead (II) Contaminated Soil† Researchers: Leubert Monsy De Belen Rodeann Angelica D. Vallo Ms. Cristine Sealza Saà ±ada Research Adviser ACKNOWLEDGEMENT This research paper would not be accomplished without the generous contributions of any individuals and organizations. The researchers wish to express their deepest gratitude and warmest appreciation to the following people, who, in any way have contributed and inspired the researchers to the overall success of the research paper. To our ever loved classmates†¦show more content†¦Based on this result, it can be conclude that Dwarf santan may used as an effective and alternative phytoremediation agent on lead (II) contaminated soil. CHAPTER 1 INTRODUCTION Developing cost effective and environmentally friendly technologies for the remediation of soils polluted with toxic substances is a topic of global interest. The value of heavy metal-accumulating plants to remediation has been recently realized. This capability is useful in removing toxic heavy metals and trace elements from contaminated soils and waters in a process referred to as phytoremediation. Several terrestrial plants that have been identified in the last two decades as highly effective in absorbing and accumulating various toxic trace elements are being evaluated for their role in the phytoremediation of soils polluted with trace elements. Contamination of soil with lead has occurred on a global scale. Exposure to lead may cause adverse effects to human health and the environment. It is therefore desirable to obtain a quantitative estimate of the potential risk of lead contamination. Numerous studies have been conducted collecting lead concentration data from both natural and contaminated soil on a range of scales. Very few of these studies have made serious attempts to spatially describe the data. In order to identify contaminated land and to enable development of appropriate environmental

Monte Carlo Simulation - 1495 Words

April 2010 ‘The problems of Monte Carlo Simulation’ by David Nawrocki This article describes the problems associated with using the Monte Carlo Simulation Model as a tool for determining future investment outcomes for investors. The tool is widely used by Financial Advisors as a means of showing investors future returns on investments. The article discusses why the use of Monte Carlo Simulation in financial planning is difficult and can lead to incorrect decisions which can have a detrimental impact on investors’ expectations of expected returns. The article tells us that Monte Carlo Simulation uses assumptions based on normal distributions and correlation coefficients of zero, neither of which are real in the financial†¦show more content†¦The results using the Monte Carlo Simulation to model the portfolio were poor. The author shows that although there is reduced risk compared to an all stock portfolio the rewards (returns) are lower. This means a fund manager may move to all stock portfolios. Exploratory Simulation uses historical data and all dependant, all non linear and does not assume normal distribution showed a higher return than Monte Carlo Simulation. The graphs show that using this model the portfolio has a higher return and the standard deviation is lower and timber-stock portfolio has a better risk -return. The article is comparing Monte Carlo Simulation with Exploratory Simulation and the problems associated with Monte Carlo Simulation. It tells us that financial planners have little or no formal training in operations research and they tend to make decisions without understanding the impact of their assumptions on the client. This article was chosen as it appeals to an audience who has an interest in getting the best return for their money with the least possible risk. That audience will include financial planners using software incorporating Monte Carlo Simulation, who want a better understanding of how the use of simulation models can give different forecasts and outcomes when it comes to investing their client’s money. The article shows the problems associated with relying purely on normal distribution and zero correlation without taking intoShow MoreRelatedMonte Carlo Simulation218872 Words   |  876 PagesPreface This is a book about Monte Carlo methods from the perspective of ï ¬ nancial engineering. Monte Carlo simulation has become an essential tool in the pricing of derivative securities and in risk management; these applications have, in turn, stimulated research into new Monte Carlo techniques and renewed interest in some old techniques. This is also a book about ï ¬ nancial engineering from the perspective of Monte Carlo methods. One of the best ways to develop an understanding of a model ofRead MoreMonte Carlo Simulation Analysis And Decision1698 Words   |  7 PagesI. Introduction Have you ever wondered what the next Stock Prices were going to be? Did you ever know that you could calculate these future prices? Have you heard of the Monte Carlo Simulation? The Monte Carlo Simulation is a computerized mathematical technique that allows people to account for risk in quantitative analysis and decision. It furnishes the decision-maker with a range of possible outcomes and probabilities that they will occur for any chance of action. It shows the extreme possibilitiesRead MoreMonte Carlo Simulation : A Computerized Mathematical Technique1932 Words   |  8 PagesIntroduction The Monte Carlo Simulation is a computerized mathematical technique that allows people to account for risk in quantitative analysis and decision. It furnishes the decision-maker with a range of possible outcomes and probabilities that they will occur for any chance of action. It shows the extreme possibilities of things as well. The system calculates results over and over, each time using a different set of random values from the probability functions. The simulation could involve tensRead MoreEssay on Real World Exposure and CVA Simulation1131 Words   |  5 PagesReal world exposure and CVA simulation The risk-neutral approach assumes that asset prices follow stochastic process with drift coinciding with the short rate r(t) being risk-free interest rate. dS(t)=S(t)[rdt+ÏÆ'(S(t),t) ã€â€"dWã€â€"^Q (t)] Instead, in real-world measure they follow more complex process, which embodies time and risk aversion of investors, namely: dS(t)=S(t)[ÃŽ ¼(S(t),t)dt+ÏÆ'(S(t),t) ã€â€"dWã€â€"^R (t)] or, equivalently, a process with real-world stochastic discount factors which depend on risk-freeRead MoreThe Price Mc Simulation On Gt Values1536 Words   |  7 Pages0.0037 in field C. Nevertheless, similar with two other larger fields, the mean and median values are still similar with base-case value. There are several things that can be concluded from oil price MC simulation on GT values. First, there is 100% probability that the forecast GT at all fields are above 68%. Second, the CoV level from field A to field C is increasing, in-line with the rising level of GT. As discuss in the previous section, due to the regressive nature of Indonesia’s PSC term, theRead MoreProject On Land Value Tax1319 Words   |  6 Pagestax. The simulation test is similar with the experiment designed and conducted in previous; however, the main difference between this simulation and the previous experiment is the simulation could be more time efficient to perceive the expected results in a more objective way, and it could avoid the uncertainty of making mistakes by experiment participants. Aside from extending the experiment work, I also pose hypotheses that were came up with this summer and use Monte Carlo simulation to test theseRead MoreQueuing Theory : Queuing Systems1048 Words   |  5 Pagescharacteristics they are: arrivals of inputs to the system, the waiting list and the service facility (Render et al, 2015). A simulation modeling process is based mainly on feeding the quantitative data into a model to produce quantitative results in a structured sequential process (Eldabi, 2002). This method assists managers by allowing them the opportunity to create a simulation model to see the various advantages and disadvantages of any changes they would like to integrate into their company. ByRead MoreApplying Dependency Structure Matrix and Monte Carlo Simulation to Predict Change in Construction Project3883 Words   |  16 PagesAPPLYING DEPENDENCY STRUCTURE MATRIX AND MONTE CARLO SIMULATION TO PREDICT CHANGE IN CONSTRUCTION PROJECT ZHEN-YU ZHAO, QIAN-LEI LV, WEI-YANG YOU School of Business Administration, North China Electric Power Univ., Beijing 102206,China E-MAIL: zhaozhenyuxm@263.net, seawolf47@163.com, ywy132639@163.com Abstract: Change management is an important aspect in construction project management, as changes constitute the main cause of schedule delay, cost overrun and other distributions. Many changeRead MoreAppshop Case Analysis Essay1397 Words   |  6 Pagesits client for execution of a project. Mr. Clark, Director, Central Region Appshop Inc had to make a decision on either accepting any one of the prices suggested by the client or participate in the bidding process. The case involves using Monte Carlo Simulation and Triangle Distribution to figure out the best possible option for Appshop Inc. Executive Summary Appshop Inc was a privately held, independent full-service Oracle consulting, applications and outsourcing company with revenues of $ 25Read More Decision-Making Models Essay959 Words   |  4 Pagessmall piece of a project, estimates the amount of time required to complete the particular section of the project, and multiplies the smaller piece times the number of total pieces (International Society of Parametric Analysts, 1999). The Monte Carlo simulation is a technique that makes use of computer models to aid in making decisions in intricate circumstances (Grambow, n.d.). My duties at work often require that I provide estimations for the level of effort required for projects I am working

Undeniable Fallouts Edward Snowden Leaks -Myassignmenthelp.Com

Question: Discuss About The Undeniable Fallouts Edward Snowden Leaks? Answer: Introduction Information ethics is defined as a core part of ethics that focuses on the relationship between managing, distribution, formation, and usage of data and the ethical standards and moral obligations that perform the activities of governing human actions in society (Floridi, 2010). Information ethics provides a platform that deals with ethical nature of issue relating to information such as privacy of data, issues regarding information ownership, misrepresented facts and others (Ocholla, Onyancha, and Britz, 2010). This report will evaluate the case of Edward Snowden by using Doing Ethics technique (DET) and the ACS code of ethics. The DET technique did not necessarily provide the best solution for the ethical issue, but it assists in ethical evaluation of a situation. ACS code of ethics has provided six core ethical values that are management to be followed by everyone in the society which assist them in behaving as professional and guide them to resolve ethical dilemmas. The case of E dward Snowden will be analysed in the report based on two techniques. The first technique focuses on analysing the facts and ethical dilemma in the case and the second technique evaluate the degree of ACS code of ethics influence over the case. Further, the report will analyse the statements of different authorities that were involved in the case and provided recommendations for the situation. Analysis of the Situation using the Doing Ethics Technique Whats going on? In 2013, Edward Snowden was held responsible for leaking the confidential data of National Security Agency (NSA). He was an employee of defence contractor Booz Allen Hamilton while working for NSA and a former CIA system administrator. Snowden leaked the data to the Washington Post and The Guardian (Scheuerman, 2014). The US government and various legal authorities stated that Snowden had breached the terms of Espionage Act 1917 which provide that leak of state confidential records is considered as an act of betrayal. Snowden argued that he did not breach any legal policies, instead he has made public aware of the wrongdoing of NSA which is a moral act. People have different opinions about the case as many individuals consider him as traitor whereas others consider his act was morally right. What are the facts? Following are various facts of the case which provide evidence regarding the morality or immorality of the action taken by Snowden. Edward Snowden is a former CIA agent who leaked the confidential information regarding the data mining program of NSA to the press through which the government collects and mines the data of millions of peoples phones and internet traffic information to identify any potential link to terrorists (Greenwald, 2014). As per the US government, Snowden breached and violated the policies of Espionage Act 1917. Snowden was a pre-employee of Booz Allen Hamilton before three months of the breach, and he accepted that he took that job only to gather all the information regarding NSA surveillance programs (Daily Mail, 2013). Many people praised the act of Snowden because it provided information about how NSA stores the information about people without their knowledge (Greenwald, MacAskill and Poitras, 2013). What are the issues? Following are the key issue raised in this case: The primary issue is whether the actions of the government are moral to implement a program which collected private data of people in order to collect information regarding potential terrorist activities. Snowden leaked the information about the program which let people know about the secret program of the government. US government is angry at the actions of Snowden since it portrays them as two-faced and negative affected their foreign relations. The lack of privacy reduces the peoples trust in the government. Snowden also flew away from the country after the incident which raised a question on his integrity and whether he should be punished for his actions. Who is affected? Edward Snowden After the leak of NSA information, Snowden flew away from the country, and the government cancelled his passport. The provision of Whistle Blower Protection Act provides that he cannot enter the country because he had a contractual relationship with the government. Therefore, the entire incident had a negative impact on the life and career of Snowden (Chadwick and Collister, 2014). US Government The incident affected US government since it negatively affected their relationship with other counties. It reduces peoples trust in the country due to lack of privacy. The changes provided by Obama Administration restrict NSA from collecting the information about phone calls and internet traffic data of people without prior court approval (Lucas, 2014). Many countries including Russia, Brazil, and Germany decrease the number of commercial treaties with the country after the incident. Germany asked for investigating the operation of NSA to ensure that they are not spying economics country (Grier, 2013). The president of Brazil also cancelled his trip to the United States after the incident. Russian government stated that the incident of Snowden prove that the US government is two-faced (Nolan, 2013). Terrorists After the incident, the government shuts down NSA operations for collecting people data through internet traffic and phone calls which make it easier for terrorists to hide their identity in the country and plot their next attack. Terrorist groups can also kidnap Snowden to collect confidential information about US government which can be detrimental for the country. People People were also affected by the incident because they find out that the government collects their information without them even knowing. It reduces the trust of public on the actions of the government. Many people were praising the actions of Snowden whereas others were opposing it by saying that it risks national security (BBC, 2014). Cloud Service Providers After the incident, many people doubt the services of US-based cloud service providers because they think that their data might be compromised and the government can the access their data without them even knowing. The incident caused substantial financial losses to US-based cloud service providers and reduced their profits (Naughton, 2013). What are the ethical issues and implications? According to Utilitarianism (consequence base) theory, the US citizens are happy with the actions of Snowden because it provides information about governments secret program which was violating their privacy and it resulted in ending such program. As per Deontology (duty base) theory, the government is unhappy because Snowden leaked their confidential data by breaching his duties. As per the provision of this theory, Snowden shouldnt have breached his duty against NSA and the US government (Murata, Adams and Lara Palma, 2017). According to Contractarianism theory, Snowden has breached his contract of services which make him legally liable as per Espionage Act; however, morally his actions are ethical. As per character-based (virtues) theory, Snowden is a good, honest and loyal citizen since he provides them information about the government program which was detrimental to their privacy (Branum, and Charteris-Black, 2015). What can be done about it? There are various alternative solutions can be applied in this case as per ethical theories. The government can waive the annulment of Snowdens passport and bring him back to the country for judging the incident by people. NSA is required to change their policies to ensure that they are not able to disrupt peoples privacy without prior permission from the court. The government should focus on bringing Snowden back since he is a potential threat to the country. Terrorists can capture him and torture him to collect all the confidential information regarding the US government programs which can compromise national security. Snowden can also reveal the information to terrorists for money; therefore, the US government should focus on bringing him back in the country. What are the options? There are various possible options available that can assist in resolving this issue. Snowden can never come back to the country which makes the US government unhappy since he is a potential threat to the country and terrorist can collect confidential data from him which can be detrimental to national security. However, not coming to the US again will make Snowden happy since he did not have to face any charges for violating his duties. The government can change its policies for collecting the information about people which disrupts their privacy. The change in policies will make people happy since it will protect their privacy but it will make the US government unhappy because it can increase the risk of potential terrorist attack. Another option is that Snowden comes back to the country which will make the US government happy since it reduces the risk of terrorist collecting confidential data of the country and the government can take legal actions against Snowden for breaching his duties. However, it will make Snowden unhappy since he will be charged with violation his duties even when his action was moral. Which option is the best and why? As per ethical theories and ACS code of ethics, the best option is that the US government should change their policies regarding the collection of private data of public without prior permission of the court. It is based on Character-based (virtue) theory, and it is best because it increases people trust in the country and improve their foreign relations. Snowden can also come back to the country if government change their policies and consider his actions as a whistle-blower. Analysis of the Situation from the point of view of an ICT professional using the ACS Code of Ethics The Primacy of Public Interest ACS Code of Ethics provides that public interest is above all; the actions of an individual should consider public interest before the organisational or personal benefit. A person should ensure that his/her actions comply with society and governments regulations, and he/she should prioritise public interest above all (Burmeister, 2013). In the case of Snowden, he has followed the ACS code of ethics since he revealed the information to let people know that the NSA has breached their data. Snowden leaked the confidential data about NSAs data mining and information collection program which collects public data from telephone calls and internet traffics. He did not comply with his duties and violated government laws for the interest of the public. The Enhancement of Quality of Life This principle provides that actions of people should focus on improving others lives, especially who are affected by their work. The advancement of Information and Communication Technology (ICT) has a substantial influence on peoples lifestyle and overall society (McDermid, 2015). Snowden was aware of the fact that the program of NSA has a substantial influence on peoples lives that were living in the United States. The whole program was a breach of public privacy because it did not collect prior permission from the court (Di Salvo and Negro, 2016). By leaking the confidential files, Snowden let the public know about the program of NSA to ensure that they protect their privacy. Therefore, it can be stated that he fulfil the principle of improving peoples quality of life. Honesty In todays competitive business world, corporations have to ensure that their actions are taken based on integrity and honesty. The companies can misuse their power and use deception to cover their illegal activities which is strictly prohibited by the ACS code of ethics (Venables, Tan, and Pradhan, 2014). In this case, NSA was collecting people data without them knowing, and they were doing it without any permission from the court. The theft of data was a serious security breach which shows that NSA breaches the honesty principle. On the other hand, Snowden also breached the principle of honesty because the leaked the confidential data to the public. His actions proved his dishonesty towards the organisation due to which he loses the trust of stakeholders. Competence This principle means that a person should only accept such work which he/she is capable of performing. The individual should be competent to perform the work that he/she has accepted and should not hesitate to take advice from other professionals regarding the same (Warren and Lucas, 2016). A person should know and accept his/her capabilities and limitation about the knowledge of ICT. In this case, Snowden has both the option to reveal the information of NSA or keep it a secret to himself. He decided to leak the information in public by complying with the principles of improving peoples quality of life and prioritising public interest. However, he performs the action in a dishonest way. But, he was aware of the legislation and programs included in the case, therefore, in a manner, he fulfil competency principle of ACS code of ethics. Professional Development This principle provides that an individual should ensure that he/she is updated regarding the latest development, practices, and legislation in technology. A person should focus on increasing his/her awareness about the issues that are related to public and profession. A person should support the program which assists in developing ICT advancements that are focused towards satisfying the public requirements (Al-Saggaf and Burmeister, 2013). Snowden was aware of the advancements and practices in the organisation and the technology that use used by the employees of NSA to collect and store that private data of public. He updated his knowledge regarding the facts and programs of NSA and understood how they are collecting peoples data. He collected the confidential data and released it in newspapers for people to see. The government still believe that Snowden might be hiding more information about the program which he did not disclose to the public. Professionalism This ethic provides that a person should perform each action with professionalism. A person is required to maintain adequate professional standards while performing any action, and he/she should focus on enhancing the integrity of ACS. ACS assists in increasing people confidence and trust in the ICT industry by ensuring that members are maintaining professionalism in their actions (ACS, 2014). These principles assist in taking corrective actions against whistle-blowers. Snowden takes his actions professional which justify his actions as a whistle-blower. He leaked the confidential data against NSAs program which was breaching peoples privacy. On the other hand, as per NSA and US government, Snowden violated the Espionage Act and breached the national security which shows his unprofessionalism. Conclusion From the above observation, it can be concluded that there are various ethical issues in the Edward Snowden case which are analysed by implementing DET technique. The report provided that Snowden violated Espionage Act and breached national security for fulfilling his policies as a whistle-blower by revealing NSA confidential data in the press. The incident was analysed based on ethical theories to evaluate its morality and for examining operations that are suitable in this case. The ACS code of ethics is evaluated in the report to address this issue. Snowden fulfil some of the ACS code of ethics and breached others such as he prioritises public interest, his actions enhance peoples quality of life and his competency. On the other hand, he breached various ethical principles as well such as professionalism, honesty and professional development. Therefore, although Snowdens actions have risked national security, he has protected the privacy of millions of people. Recommendations Following recommendations can assist US government in ethically handling the issues. The government should change their policies regarding collecting private information of public without prior courts permission which will improve their character and foreign relations. Snowden should be brought back to the country, and he should be protected as per whistle-blower since his actions protect the privacy of millions. The government should improve the security of its operations to avoid any leakage of data to terrorist groups. References ACS. (2014) ACS Code of Professional Conduct. [PDF] ACS. Available at: https://www.acs.org.au/content/dam/acs/rules-and-regulations/Code-of-Professional-Conduct_v2.1.pdf [Accessed 3 February 2018]. Al-Saggaf, Y. and Burmeister, O.K. (2013) A survey of Australian ICT professionals perceptions regarding the most common ethical problems they face in the workplace. InProceedings of the Seventh AICE Conference(pp. 43-48). BBC. (2014) Edward Snowden: Leaks that exposed US spy programme. [Online] BBC. Available at: https://www.bbc.com/news/world-us-canada-23123964 [Accessed 3 February 2018]. Branum, J. and Charteris-Black, J. (2015) The Edward Snowden affair: A corpus study of the British press.Discourse Communication,9(2), pp.199-220. Burmeister, O.K. (2013) Achieving the goal of a global computing code of ethics through an international-localisation hybrid.Ethical Space,10(4), pp.25-32. Chadwick, A. and Collister, S. (2014) Boundary-Drawing Power and the Renewal of Professional News Organizations: The Case of The Guardian and the Edward Snowden NSA Leak.International Journal of Communication,8, p.22. Daily Mail. (2013) Edward Snowden says he took a job with Booz Allen specifically so he could gather information on NSA surveillance programs. [Online] Daily Mail. Available at: https://www.dailymail.co.uk/news/article-2347691/Edward-Snowden-reveals-took-job-Booz-Allen-gather-information-NSA-surveillance-programs.html [Accessed 3 February 2018]. Di Salvo, P. and Negro, G. (2016) Framing Edward snowden: A comparative analysis of four newspapers in China, United Kingdom and United States.Journalism,17(7), pp.805-822. Floridi, L. (2010) Information ethics.The Cambridge handbook of information and computer ethics, pp.77-99. Greenwald, G. (2014)No place to hide: Edward Snowden, the NSA, and the US surveillance state. Macmillan. New York: Metropolitan Books. Greenwald, G., MacAskill, E. and Poitras, L. (2013) Edward Snowden: the whistleblower behind the NSA surveillance revelations.The Guardian,9(6), p.2. Grier, P. (2013) Are Edward Snowden NSA leaks messing up US foreign relations?. [Online] The Christian Science Monitor. Available at: https://www.csmonitor.com/USA/Politics/Decoder/2013/0903/Are-Edward-Snowden-NSA-leaks-messing-up-US-foreign-relations [Accessed 3 February 2018]. Lucas, G.R. (2014) NSA management directive# 424: Secrecy and privacy in the aftermath of Edward Snowden.Ethics International Affairs,28(1), pp.29-38. McDermid, D. (2015)Ethics in ICT: an Australian perspective. economics: Pearson Higher Education AU. Murata, K., Adams, A.A. and Lara Palma, A.M. (2017) Following Snowden: a cross-cultural study on the social impact of Snowdens revelations.Journal of Information, Communication and Ethics in Society,15(3), pp.183-196. Naughton, J. (2013) After Edward Snowden's revelations, why trust US cloud providers?. [Online] The Guardian. Available at: https://www.theguardian.com/technology/2013/sep/15/edward-snowden-nsa-cloud-computing [Accessed 3 February 2018]. Nolan, R. (2013) 5 Undeniable Fallouts from the Edward Snowden Leaks. [Online] US News. Available at: https://www.usnews.com/opinion/blogs/world-report/2013/09/20/brazil-russia-and-the-impact-of-edward-snowden-on-us-foreign-relations [Accessed 3 February 2018]. Ocholla, D.N., Onyancha, O.B. and Britz, J. (2010) Can information ethics be conceptualized by using the core/periphery model?.Journal of informetrics,4(4), pp.492-502. Scheuerman, W.E. 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Best Article Directory For Submit Your Article For Free. Essay Example

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Critically evaluate the contention that the active and effective involvement of stakeholders in sustainable floodplain management is desirable but difficult to achieve in practice. The WritePass Journal

Critically evaluate the contention that the active and effective involvement of stakeholders in sustainable floodplain management is desirable but difficult to achieve in practice. Introduction Critically evaluate the contention that the active and effective involvement of stakeholders in sustainable floodplain management is desirable but difficult to achieve in practice. IntroductionReferencesRelated Introduction Environmental nuisance are usually multifaceted, vague, and have caused a lot of consequence on various places (WMO, 2007). This has called for a transparent process in decision making which is able to fit varying situation and embraces a multiplicity of ideas and principles (Affeltranger, 2001; Simonovic, 2000; Simonovic and Akter, 2006; WMO, 2007).   In achieving this, the involvement of stakeholders is increasingly being used and introduced in environmental decision making process from local to global level (Reed, 2008, 2009). The management of Floodplain comprises of different resource activities which are designed to reduce the effect of flood on people, environment and economy of the country (Simonovic and Akter, 2006). The management of floodplain play a major role in the protection of the socio economic development of a place (WMO, 2007). Achieving sustainable floodplain management, decision-making would involve an integrated reflection on the fiscal, environmental and soci etal consequences of catastrophic flood actions (Wurbs, 1999). Given economic consideration more concern in floodplain management, stakeholder’s involvement needs more attention (Affeltranger, 2001), while local community leaders, government agencies, policy makers, non- governmental organisations (NGO’s), and general public involvement should be encouraged in the making floodplain management choices (Affeltranger, 2001). The involvement of stakeholders exists under various names which include interactive governance, joint up process and participatory process (Healy 1997, Mason 2000, Edelenbos 2000 and Pollitt 2003). Stakeholders involvement is a multi-faceted phenomenon, viewed from hypothetical viewpoint, and is defined as â€Å"the early involvement of individual citizens in public policy making in order to explore policy problems and develop solutions in an open and fair process of debate that has influence on decision making† (Edelenbos, 2003), allowing other actors in a democratic society to participate in certain policy making decision (Chess and Purcell, 1999; Gerrits and Edelenbos, 2004). Floodplain management decisions may be designed and made effective without the involvement of stakeholders, they cannot be effectively implemented without them (Affeltranger, 2001). Good governance as defined by kooiman, (1993) is a broad and present-day strategy, unfolding not mainly to the administration of the state but the method of communication between groups, societal actors, public and private institutions (Benn et al, 2009), and noted that the understanding between different stakeholders and the government does not assume decline of the state but rather, an interactive state, where public and private communication will lead to better organization and harmony amid a range of discipline (Benn et al, 2009; Pierre, 2000). The participation of stakeholders in water management has a very long tradition, stating the change witnessed in the UK, on the increase in stakeholder participation over the last 30 years in water related problems, and has been prompted by public concern (Patel and Stel, 2004). This brought a change in the role played by stakeholders’ participation in management of floodplain with the introduction of the water frame work directive (WFD) (Defra 2003). Orr et al, (2007) noted that the environmental agency in England and Wales relied on the alliance of a large scope of collaborators, making sure that they attain a successful implementation (Orr et al, 2007; Gerrits and Edelenbos, 2004). For example, floodplain management in the Attenborough district tends to be on a large scale and would involve a lagre number of stakeholders, while the red river flood of 1997, which was one of the worst in record in many locations, as described by Simonovic and Akter, (2006), caused a widesprea d damage. The recommendations that resulted during participation could slow down or over-complicate the management process (Simonovic and Akter, 2006). Concerns over the participation of stakeholders, not living up to their claims, are being made (Cooke, 2001; Nelson and Wright, 1995) as opined by (Burton et al, 2004), that consultational fatigue could arise during the process of participation which are not always well organised, having the notion that their influence or participation do not have effect on decision made (Burton et al, 2004; Mazmanian and Nienaber, 1979; Stewart et al., 1984; Chess and Purcell, 1999; Reed et al., 2006). When this happens, there could be decline in the levels of engagement, putting their credibility of participation at risk (Reed, 2008, Reed et al, 2009). These drawbacks implies that the practice of stakeholders participation is not as easy as it may seem (Gerrits and Edelenbos 2004), as the involvement of stakeholders in the management of floodplain is complex and has a lot of dynamic issues (Gerrits and Edelenbos 2004; Baylis and Smith 1999). Consistency in stakeholders participation should move tow ards early engagement, providing an understandable information, transparent attitude, understanding the needs and interest of others by listening to them (Kothari, 2001), offering opportunities for participation with the purpose of making efficient use of time and resources which allows stakeholders to have a valuable contribution (Ludwig, 2001; Gerrits and Edelenbos, 2004). It is no surprise when the European commission (EC) demanded active interaction in the management of water, particularly when dealing with floodplain, and noted that the process should be consolidative through the water frame work directive (WFD), (Van Ast and Boot, 2003). Moreover, participation is seen as crucial in any programme of environmental governance (Bulkeley and Mol, 2003; Burton et al, 2004), especially in flood plain management as arguments in favour of participatory approach are more beneficial in the quality of decisions made and implemented, thereby increasing democratic content, (Bulkeley and Mo l, 2003). Claims regarding the arguments for stakeholder’s involvement in environmental decision-making can be categorized under normative and pragmatic arguments (Reed 2008). Normative claims argue that the participation of stakeholders reduce the likelihood of societal marginalisation where decisions affecting them can be promoted and enhanced for their benefits (Martin and Sherington, 1997), stakeholder empowerment (Greenwood et al, 1993; MacNaughten and Jacobs, 1997; Okali et al., 1994; Wallerstein, 1999), social learning and public trust in civil society in a transparent view as well as more holistic environmental decision (Richards et al., 2004; Blackstock et al., 2007), while pragmatic claims are focused on the excellence and robustness of environmental outputs (Reed 2008). It is also argued that the participation of stakeholders would increase or enhance a more robust research by the provision of inputs (Hansen, 1994; Reed et al., 2006, 2008; Yosie and Herbst, 1998), and that pa rticipation enhances better adaptation of technology to local socio-cultural and environmental conditions by meeting the needs of the locals, and also attaining higher quality decisions based on trust and a sense of ownership over the output of their decision, therefore reducing cost depending on the nature of their initiative (Martin and Sherington, 1997; Reed, 2007; Reed and Dougill 2007; Richards et al., 2004; Stringer et al., 2006; Fischer, 2000; Beierle, 2002; Koontz and Thomas, 2006; Newig, 2007). In spite of these frontlines, there is an expanding concern on the part of the public that the participation of stakeholders on the claims made have not been realised (Kothari, 2001), as the credibility of stakeholders have been questioned in terms of lack of knowledge to engage highly scientific and environmental debates (Fischer and Young, 2007). However, Fritsch and Newig carried out a study to evaluate the environmental policies on participatory processes, framework and environmental outputs of 35 cases of local and regional participation in North America and Western Europe and found out that, the most important goals of participants on environmental effectiveness was high interest in sustainable environmental benefits (Reed, 2008). Similar studies of fisheries management in Bangladesh and the involvement of 239 participants in environmental management decision-making were both noted to have improve the quality of decisions made, adding new analysis, innovation and ideas (Beierle, 2002; Sultana and Abeyasekera, 2007; Reed, 2008), but noted that the quality of decisions obtained from these studies relies on the quality of process that leads to it (Reed, 2007). Meagher and Lyall, (2007), cited the case of stakeholder participation in the development and funding of seed-corn, where the rate at which the collaborators responded was very fast (Meagher and Lyall, 2007). The information given to stakeholders in terms of deliberation in the decision making process would be beneficial in the quality of decided outcomes (Chase et al, 2004; Fischer and Young, 2007; Webler and Tuler, 2006). Stakeholders demonstrate different perceptions and have different relationship to natural hazards, thereby reflecting diverse socio-economic and socio-psychological background (Affeltranger, 2001; Zimmerman, 2001). The participation of stakeholder’s in floodplain management is a unique opportunity for government establishment to measure the possibility of local scheme for flood disaster improvement and management (Affeltranger, 2001), and also a new behaviour by participating stakeholders. In choosing stakeholders for policy decision making in floodplain ma nagement, careful attention must be paid to a diversity of stakeholders as asymmetry indicates the differences between various stakeholders. Therefore, with this in mind, right symmetry is an imaginary state that will not arise in practice, as initiatives achieved on paper often lacked ratification and implementation (Van Ast 2000b). The model laid down by the participation of stakeholders will certainly be different and uneven (Osborne et al, 2002). The level at which uncertainty becomes higher, participating in decision making becomes more complicated while those who make up the institution in the direction of handling uncertainty becomes more technical (Clark, 2002). In a recent study on climate change policy, issues have been raised frequently whether the scope for deliberation and the consensus outcomes from participation is a measure of success (Flyvberg 1998; Owens 2000; Borsuk et al., 2001; Kwok et al., 2001; Bender and Simonovic, 2000; Despic and Simonovic, 2000; Kacprzyk and Nurmi, 1998). Pellizzoni noted the conditions in which radical uncertainty is characterized in the techniques perceived under the risk and environmental issues deliberated by experts and non experts stakeholders may in fact challenge their decisions (Bulkeley and Mol, 2003), and also noted that outcome realised from the participation of stakeholders are not straight forward, stating that their involvement into guiding principle depends on the selection of political factors over which the stakeholders have little influence, (Bulkeley and Mol, 2003). Questions encountered on how participation should be institutionalised and organised and those involved should be taken into consideration, making sure decision made should not paralyse the programme, (Burton, 2003). Participation is not all about representing the people, but the value and ideas they carry (Bulkeley and Mol, 2003; Simonovic and Akter, 2005; Reed, 2008). Early participation from the beginning through conception, implementation, monitoring and evaluation of outcomes should be encouraged as early involvement and transparent information will lead to a certain level of quality and robust decision that could lead to success. References Affeltranger, B. (2001). Public participation in the design of local strategies for flood mitigation and control. International Hydrological programme. UNESCO, Paris. IHP-V, Technical Documents in Hydrology. No. 48. Akter, T., and Simonovic, S. P. (2005). Aggregation of fuzzy views of a large number of stakeholders for multiobjective floodplain management decision making. Journal of Environmental Management, 77 (2005) 133–143. Akter, T., and Simonovic, S. P. (2006). Participatory floodplain management in the Red River Basin, Canada. Annual Reviews in Control 30 (2006) 183–192. Ast J.A.V. (2003). Interactive water management in cross-boundary river system. Delft: Eburon. Ast J.A.V. (2003). Participation in the European water policy. Physics and Chemistry of the Earth 28 12/13, 555-562. Baylis, J. and Smith, S. (Ed.) (1999).   The globalisation of world politics. Oxford / New York: oxford university press Benn, S., Dunphy, D., and Martin, A. (2009). Governance of environmental risk: New approaches to managing stakeholder involvement. Journal of Environmental Management 90(2009) 1567–1575. Bender, M.J., Simonovic, S.P. (2000). A fuzzy compromise approach to water resources systems planning under uncertainty. Fuzzy Sets and Systems 115, 35–44. Beierle, T.C. (2002). The quality of stakeholder-based decisions. Risk Analysis 22, 739–749. Blackstock, K.L., Kelly, G.J., Horsey, B.L. (2007). Developing and applying a framework to evaluate participatory research for sustainability. Ecological Economics 60, 726–742. Borsuk, M., Clemen, R., Maguire, L., and Reckhow, R. (2001). Stakeholder values and scientific modelling in the Neuse river watershed. Group Decision and Negotiation 10, 355–373. Bulkeley, H. and Mol, A.P.J. (2003). Participation and Environmental Governance: Consensus, Ambivalence and Debate Environmental Values 12: 143–54. Burton, P. Goodlad, R. Croft, J. Abbott, J. Hastings, A. Macdonald, G. Slater, T. (2004). What Works in Community Involvement in Area-Based Initiatives? A Systematic Review of the Literature. University of Bristol and University of Glasgow, London. Home Office 2004. homeoffice.gov.uk/rds/pdfs04/rdsolr5304.pdf. Burton, P. (2003). Community Involvement in Neighbourhood Regeneration: Stairway to Heaven or road to nowhere? Centre for Neighbourhood Research Paper 13. Available online at neighbourhoodcentre.org.uk/research/cnrpaperspdf/cnr13pap.pdf. Chase, L.C., Decker, D.J., and Lauber, T.B. (2004). Public participation in wildlife management: What do stakeholders want? Society and Natural Resources 17, 629–639. Chess, C. and Purcell, K. (1999). Public participation and the environment – do we know what works. Environmental Science and Technology 33, 2685–2692. Clark, M.J. (2002). Dealing with uncertainty: adaptive approaches to sustainable River management.   Aquatic Conservation: Marine and Freshwater Ecosystems. Aquatic Conservation: Marine. Freshwater Ecosystem. 12: 347–363 (2002) Cooke, B. (2001). The Social Psychological Limits of Participation? In: Cooke B, Kothari U (Ed.) Participation: the new tyranny? Zed Books, London, pp. 102-121. Defra (Department for the Environment, Food and Rural Affairs) (2003). The Water Environment (Water Framework Directive) (England and Wales) Regulations. HMSO, London Despic, O., and Simonovic, S.P. (2000). Aggregation operators for soft decision making. Fuzzy Sets and Systems 115 (1), 11–33. European Union (EU) (2000). The water framework directive. Establishing a framework for community action in the field of water policy. Fischer, F. (2000). Citizens, experts and the environment. The Politics of Local Knowledge. Duke University Press, London. Fischer, A., and Young, J.C. (2007). Understanding mental constructs of biodiversity: Implications for biodiversity management and conservation. Biological Conservation 136, 271–282. Flyvberg, B. (1998). Rationality and Power. Chicago: The University of Chicago Press. Gerrits, L. and Edelenbos, J. (2004). Management of sediments through stakeholder involvement: the risks and value of engaging stakeholders when looking for solutions for sediment-related problems. Journal of Soils and Sediments 4 (4) 239-246. Greenwood, D.J., Whyte, W.F., and Harkavy, I. (1993). Participatory action research as a process and as a goal. Human Relations 46, 175–192. Hansen, B. (Ed.), (1994). Report on the Seminar on Integration of Indigenous Peoples and Their Knowledge. Reykjavik. Iceland. Ministry for the Environment (Iceland), Ministry of the Environment (Denmark), and the Home Rule of Greenland (Denmark Office) Copenhagen, Denmark. Healey, P. (1997). Collaborative planning; shaping places in fragmented societies. London: Macmillan Kacprzyk, J., Nurmi, H. (1998). Group Decision Making Under Fuzziness. In: Slowinsky, R. (Ed.), Fuzzy Sets in Decision Analysis, Operation Research and Statistics. Kluwer Academic Publishers. Dordrecht. Kooiman, J. (1993). Modern Governance. Sage Publications, London and Thousand Oaks. Kwok, R.C.W., and Zhou, J. Ma D. (2001). Improving Group Decision Making: A Fuzzy GSS Approach, www.is.cityu.edu.hk/Research/Publication/ paper/9901.pdf. Koontz, T.M., and Thomas, C.W. (2006). What Do We Know and Need to Know about the Environmental Outcomes of Collaborative Management? Public Administration Review 66, 111–121. Kothari, U. (2001). Power, Knowledge and Social Control in Participatory Development. In: Cooke, B., Kothari, U. (Eds.), Participation: the New Tyranny? Zed Books, London, pp. 139–152. MacNaughten, P., and Jacobs, M. (1997). Public identification with sustainable development – investigating cultural barriers to participation. Global Environmental Change: Human and Policy Dimensions 7, 5–24. Martin, A., and Sherington, J. (1997). Participatory research methods: implementation, effectiveness and institutional context. Agricultural Systems 55, 195–216. Mazmanian, D.A., and Nienaber, J. (1979). Can Organizations Change? Brookings Institution, Washington, DC. Mason, M. (2000). Evaluating participative capacity building in environmental policy: provincial fish protection and parks management in British Columbia, Policy studies 21 (2) 77-98. Meagher, L.R., Lyall, C., (2007). Review of the RELU Programme’s Seed-Corn Funding Mechanisms.http:relu.ac.uk/news/RELU%20FINAL%20REPORT%2012%2003%2007 LMEAGHER.doc (accessed 22.12.07). Mostert, E. (2003). The challenge of public participation. Water policy 5 (2) 179-197 Newig, J. (2007). Does public participation in environmental decisions lead to improved environmental quality? Towards an analytical framework. Communication, Cooperation, Participation. Research and Practice for a Sustainable Future 1, 51–71. Nelson, N., and Wright, S. (1995). Power and participatory development: Theory and practice. Intermediate Technology Publications, London. Okali, C., Sumberg, J., and Farrington, J. (1994). Farmer Participatory Research. Intermediate Technology Publications, London. Orr, P., Colvin, J., and King, D. (2007). Involving stakeholders in integrated river basin planning in England and Wales. Water Resource Management 21:331–349. DOI 10.1007/s11269-006-9056-9 Osborne, S. Williamson, A. and Beattie, R. (2002). Community Involvement in Rural Regeneration Partnerships in the UK: Key issues from a three nation study, Regional Studies, 36, (9), 1083-1092. Owens, S. (2000). Engaging the public: information and deliberation in environmental policy’, Environment and Planning A, 32: 1141–8. Patel, M. and Stel, J.H. (2004). Public Participation in River Basin Management in Europe: a national approach and background study synthesising experiences of 9 European countries, www.harmonicop.info. Pellizzoni, L. (2003). Uncertainty and Participatory Democracy Environmental Values 12: 195–224. Pierre, J. (2000). Introduction: understanding governance. In: Pierre, J. (Ed.), Debating Governance. Oxford University Press, Oxford, pp. 1–6. Pollitt, C. (2003). The essential public manager. Midenhead Philadelphia: Open University press. Richards, C., Blackstock, K.L., and Carter, C.E. (2004). Practical Approaches to Participation SERG Policy Brief No. 1. Macauley Land Use Research Institute, Aberdeen. Reed, M.S., Fraser, E.D.G., and Dougill, A.J. (2006). An adaptive learning process for developing and applying sustainability indicators with local communities. 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Journal of Environmental Management 90: 1933–1949 Simonovic, S. P. (2000). Tools for water management: One view of the future. Water International, IWRA, 25(1), 1–8. Stringer, L.C., Prell, C., Reed, M.S., Hubacek, K., Fraser, E.D.G., and Dougill, A.J. (2006). Unpacking ‘participation’ in the adaptive management of socio-ecological systems: A critical review. Ecology and Society 11, 39 Sultana, P., and Abeyasekera, S. (2007). Effectiveness of participatory planning for community management of fisheries in Bangladesh. Journal of Environmental Management 86, 201–213. Stewart, T.R., Dennis, R.L., and Ely, D.W. (1984). Citizen participation and judgment in policy analysis – a case-study of urban air quality policy. Policy Science 17, 67–87. Wallerstein, N. (1999). Power between the evaluator and the community: research relationships within New Mexico’s healthier communities. Social Science and Medicine 49, 39–53. Webler, T., and Tuler, S. (2006). Four perspectives on public participation process in environmental assessment and decision making. Policy Studies Journal 34, 699–722. World Meteorological Organization (2007). Formulating a basin flood management plan. A tool for integrated flood management. Associated programme on flood management. March. Yosie, T. and Herbst, T. (1998). Using stakeholder processes in environmental decision making: An evaluation of lessons learned, key issues, and future challenges. Washington, DC: Ruder Finn Washington. Zimmerman, H.J., (2001). Fuzzy set theory- and its application. Academic Publishers, Boston Dordrecht, London.